Civic Tech · Explainer
Data centers, explained
What a data center uses, how the power, water and air move through one, what Virginia and the Richmond region use today, and what four policy paths could mean by 2040.
calm numbers, real sources ↓
The basics
What a data center is
A building full of computers that run websites, apps and AI for other people. Large ones are called hyperscale campuses and hold several buildings.
Compute
The work the servers do. More computing means more electricity, and AI training and serving use a lot of it.
Power use effectiveness (PUE)
Total building power divided by the power the computers use. 1.0 would mean zero overhead. The global average in 2025 was 1.54; Google reported 1.09 for its fleet.
Source: Uptime Institute 2025[1]; Google[2]Water usage effectiveness (WUE)
Litres of water used on site per kilowatt-hour of computing. The US average was about 0.36 L/kWh in 2023.
Source: LBNL 2024[3]Cooling
Removing the heat the servers make. Methods range from outside air, to chilled water, to evaporative towers, to liquid running straight to the chips. Each trades power against water.
How it all works
Scroll through seven steps: electricity first, then water, then air. Use the buttons if you prefer.
1 of 7 · Electricity
Power arrives from the grid
High-voltage power comes in on transmission lines. An on-site substation steps it down to a voltage the building can use. Large campuses may have their own.
2 of 7 · Electricity
Backup systems, then the servers
Batteries (UPS) and generators stand by so a grid blip never reaches the servers. Power distribution units (PDUs) feed each rack. The servers turn that electricity into computing.
3 of 7 · Electricity
Every watt becomes heat
Almost all the electricity a server uses ends up as heat. Removing that heat takes extra power, and PUE measures how much.
4 of 7 · Water
Water carries the heat away
Many sites pipe the heat into a water loop. A cooling tower or chiller then pushes it outdoors. Some sites use reclaimed water instead of fresh supplies; others cool with air or closed loops and use far less water.
5 of 7 · Water
Evaporated or returned
In an evaporative tower, some water evaporates and leaves as vapor. That is the water a site actually consumes. The rest is returned or discharged. WUE counts the litres used per kilowatt-hour of computing.
6 of 7 · Air
Cool air in, through the cold aisle
Server racks face each other across a cold aisle. Cooled air is pushed into that aisle and pulled through the front of each server.
7 of 7 · Air
Hot air out, through the hot aisle
Warm air leaves the back of the servers into a hot aisle, kept separate so it can't mix with the cool side. From there the heat is exhausted outdoors or handed to the water loop.
The picture today
Northern Virginia alone holds 13% of the world's reported data center capacity. Source: JLARC 2024[27] Around Richmond, Henrico, Chesterfield, Hanover and Goochland all have projects underway and new rules for them.
28%
of Dominion Energy Virginia's electricity sales went to data centers in 2025, up from 26% in 2024.
Source: Dominion 10-K 2026[5]5,050 MW
is roughly how much power Virginia's data center sites use, across about 150 sites and 7,200 acres.
Source: JLARC 2024[6][7]2.1 billion gal
of water used by Virginia data centers in 2023, just over a third of it reclaimed. That is under 0.5% of state withdrawals.
Source: JLARC 2024[8][9]37
data centers in Henrico County. They use about 0.5–1 million gallons of water a day, out of 30–40 million used countywide.
Source: Henrico County 2025[10][11]< 8%
of Chesterfield's 110.5 million-gallon daily water capacity: the cap on Google's three planned sites, about 8.6 million gallons a day combined.
Source: Chesterfield County 2026[12]2×
Virginia's unconstrained power demand is expected to double within 10 years, driven mainly by data centers.
Source: JLARC 2024[13]Water in Henrico, to scale
What local governments are doing
| Where | What changed |
|---|---|
| Henrico | Since June 2025, a data center needs a provisional use permit in office, business and industrial zones. A proposed 3,100-acre special district was not adopted. Source: Henrico County 2025[14]; Henrico County 2025[15] |
| Chesterfield | Since January 2026, new data centers can no longer build by right; each needs a conditional-use permit and a public hearing. Source: Chesterfield County 2026[16] |
| Hanover | In June 2026 the board asked staff to research data center impacts and draft a policy or ordinance. About 1,200 acres are already approved for a technology park. Source: Hanover County 2026[17]; Hanover County 2026[18] |
| Goochland | In November 2025 the board approved a Technology Overlay District and Technology Zone, 4–1. Source: Goochland County[19] |
| Statewide | A 2026 law defines a 'high energy use facility' as one expected to need 100 MW or more, and adds review steps for rezoning one. Source: Code of Virginia 2026[20] |
| Moratoria | Loudoun County's own position is that it lacks legal authority for a moratorium on new data center applications. No Virginia locality has adopted one. Source: Loudoun County 2025[21] |
What could happen by 2040
Pick a path. Each one projects Virginia's data centers from 2024 to 2040. Open the advanced panel to change any assumption.
This is a scenario model, not a forecast. It shows how the levers interact, using sourced starting points. See the method below.
Faint lines show the other three paths. Your current path is the bold line.
Advanced: every assumption (policy wonk mode)
Results as a table
Method
Scope. All of Virginia, because the solid figures are statewide. No public source gives a total for the Richmond region alone; the closest, 560 MW, combines the Richmond metro with Culpeper and Fauquier counties.
Start (2024). 5,050 MW of facility power (JLARC). Computing load = facility power ÷ PUE 1.4 (US average, 2023, LBNL).
Each year. Computing load grows at the path's rate, capped by the most new load allowed per year and stopped entirely after a freeze year. PUE, WUE and the reclaimed-water share move in a straight line to their 2040 targets.
Outputs. Electricity = facility MW × 8,760 hours × average load. Water = computing kWh × WUE. Fresh water excludes the reclaimed share. Land = facility MW × 1.43 acres/MW (7,200 acres ÷ 5,050 MW, JLARC). CO₂ = electricity × grid intensity, starting at 593.4 lb/MWh (EPA eGRID 2023, Virginia/Carolinas) and falling at the path's rate.
Check. At the default settings the model's 2024 water use is about 2.4 billion gallons. JLARC measured 2.1 billion gallons for 2023, so the defaults land in the right range.
Growth rates. No regulation uses 7.2% a year, the rate at which demand doubles in 10 years (JLARC's unconstrained outlook). Some regulation uses 4.2%, and heavy regulation 2.8%, the 20-year growth rates in Dominion's 2026 plan for its zone and its own load. These describe total electric load, not data centers alone, so treat them as anchors, not forecasts. The 750 MW yearly cap is about what Dominion connected in 2025 (744 MW). Heavy regulation's water target of 0.2 L/kWh is near the best published fleet WUE (Meta, 0.19).
Assumptions, not measurements. Average load (80% of capacity), the PUE and WUE targets for each path, reclaimed-water targets, and grid-carbon declines are judgment calls. Change them in the advanced panel.
Moratorium. Shown as hypothetical: Virginia localities have said they lack the authority to impose one. In the model, capacity already approved finishes by 2026, then nothing new is added.
Model inputs come from: Source: JLARC 2024[6][8][7][13]; LBNL 2024[22][3]; EPA eGRID 2025[23]; Dominion IRP 2026[24]; Dominion 10-K 2026[25]; Meta 2025[26]
The model is open: dc-model.js.
Sources
Each quote is copied from the source page. Researched November 2026.
- Uptime Institute Global Data Center Survey 2025 (UII Keynote Report 180). Uptime Institute, 2025-07.
In 2025, respondents’ annual PUE had a weighted average of 1.54 (see Figure 2), marking the sixth consecutive year that this headline figure has virtually stood still.
- Efficiency - Google Data Centers. Google.
In 2025, the average annual power usage effectiveness for our global fleet of data centers was 1.09.
- 2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage Report (LBNL-2001637). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (for U.S. DOE), 2024-12.
The shift toward hyperscale and colocation data centers results in an increase in the overall average WUE, which stays just over 0.36 L/kWh through 2023
- Data Centers in Virginia (JLARC Report 598). Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission (JLARC), Commonwealth of Virginia, 2024-12-09.
In total, Virginia data center sites use approximately 5,050 megawatts of power (sidebar).
- Data Centers in Virginia (JLARC Report 598). Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission (JLARC), Commonwealth of Virginia, 2024-12-09.
In total, Virginia has over 63 million square feet of data center space on 7,200 acres of land (sidebar).
- Data Centers in Virginia (JLARC Report 598). Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission (JLARC), Commonwealth of Virginia, 2024-12-09.
In 2023, the data center industry used an estimated 2.1 billion gallons of water, with just over a third coming from reclaimed water instead of new withdrawals (sidebar).
- Staff Analysis: Data Center Regulation. Henrico County Planning Department, 2025-05-01.
These features have created an inviting environment for the development of data centers, with the county hosting 37 data centers of varying sizes.
- Staff Analysis: Data Center Regulation. Henrico County Planning Department, 2025-05-01.
Information provided by the Henrico County Department of Public Utilities (DPU) indicates data centers in the county use approximately 0.5 to 1 million gallons per day (MGD) of water, out of 30-40 MGD used daily in the county.
- Data Centers (county data center webpage). Chesterfield County, VA, 2026-07-22.
The cumulative total from all three properties—about 8.6 million gallons per day—represents less than 8% of the county’s total water capacity.
- Data Centers in Virginia (JLARC Report 598). Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission (JLARC), Commonwealth of Virginia, 2024-12-09.
JLARC’s independent forecast shows that unconstrained demand for power in Virginia is expected to double within the next 10 years, driven primarily by the data center industry’s growth
- PUP-2025-101460 Board report. Henrico County Planning, 2025-10-07.
Due to the amendment to the zoning ordinance adopted June 10, 2025, data centers as a primary use are only allowed in office, business, and industrial zoning districts with the approval of a provisional use permit.
- Staff Analysis: Data Center Regulation. Henrico County Planning Department, 2025-05-01.
which would include slightly less than 80 parcels totaling approximately 3,100 acres.
- Data Centers (county data center webpage). Chesterfield County, VA, 2026-07-22.
Since then, the Board of Supervisors has approved an updated zoning ordinance that eliminates development by-right of new data center projects, which now must go through the public zoning process and obtain a conditional-use permit (CUP).
- Hanover Board Brief | June 24, 2026. Hanover County, VA, 2026-06-25.
The Board unanimously approved a motion for County staff to research the impact of data centers and develop a County data center policy and/or ordinance.
- Community Development Committee presentation: Data Centers + Zoning Ordinance. Hanover County, VA, 2026-06-12.
Hanover Technology Park 1,200 acres approved
- Technology Overlay District & Technology Zone. Goochland County, VA.
At their public meeting on November 6, 2025, the Goochland County Board of Supervisors approved both a Technology Overlay District and a Technology Zone by a vote of 4-1.
- HB153, 2026 Regular Session, Chapter 567 (Va. Code § 15.2-2209.4). Virginia General Assembly (LIS), 2026-04-13.
"high energy use facility" or "HEUF" means a facility that an applicant reasonably anticipates at the time of filing a rezoning application, special exception application, or special use permit application will require 100 megawatts or more
- Data Centers: Land Use Considerations. Loudoun County, VA, 2025-03-18.
Loudoun County does not have the legal authority to implement a moratorium on new data center applications.
- 2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage Report (LBNL-2001637). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (for U.S. DOE), 2024-12.
The resulting annual average PUE falls from 1.6 in 2014 to 1.4 in 2023
- eGRID Summary Tables 2023 (rev2). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2025-06-12.
SRVC SERC Virginia/Carolina 593.4 0.045 0.006 596.3
- Virginia Electric and Power Company 2026 Integrated Resource Plan Update (Case No. PUR-2026-00163). Dominion Energy Virginia (filed with Virginia SCC), 2026-10-15.
Overall, the 20-year CAGR for the DOM Zone is 4.2%.
- Dominion Energy 2025 Annual Report (incl. Form 10-K). Dominion Energy, Inc. (SEC EDGAR), 2026-03-18.
In 2025, we connected 11 data centers with a combined capacity of 744 MW, and had more than 48 GW of capacity in various stages of contracting as of December 2025.
- Meta 2025 Environmental Data Index. Meta, 2025-09.
Annual data center WUE 0.30 0.26 0.20 0.18 0.19